The concept of “church” stands as one of Christianity’s most fundamental institutions, yet many modern believers remain unaware of the rich historical and linguistic foundations of this term. In the English-speaking world, the word “church” has become so commonplace that its original meaning and significance are often overlooked. The Greek word “ἐκκλησία” (ekklēsia), which appears throughout the New Testament and is traditionally translated as “church,” carries profound theological implications that connect the early Christian movement with its Jewish roots and the broader Greco-Roman world.
This essay explores the linguistic background and theological significance of ekklēsia, examining its use in the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures), its cultural context during Jesus’s time, and its transformative application in the emerging Christian community. Understanding this term illuminates not only what the early church believed about itself but also provides insight into how contemporary Christians might recapture the dynamic, communal essence that defined the original ekklēsia.
The Septuagint (often abbreviated as LXX, referring to the traditional account of seventy or seventy-two translators) represents one of the most significant translations in religious history. Created primarily in Alexandria, Egypt, between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE, it was the first major attempt to render the Hebrew Scriptures into another language. According to tradition, King Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285-246 BCE) commissioned this translation to include the Jewish scriptures in the famous Library of Alexandria.
The translation began with the Torah (the first five books of Moses) and gradually expanded to include the other books of the Hebrew Bible. This monumental undertaking reflected the needs of the large Jewish diaspora community in Alexandria and other Hellenistic regions where Greek, not Hebrew, had become the primary language of communication and worship.
By the first century CE—the time of Jesus and the early church—the Septuagint had achieved remarkable prominence:
Widespread Use Among Diaspora Jews: For Jews living outside Palestine in Greek-speaking regions of the Roman Empire, the Septuagint served as their primary scripture. Many of these communities had limited knowledge of Hebrew, making the Greek translation essential for religious instruction and worship.
Common Reference in Palestine: Even within Palestine, Greek cultural influence was significant, particularly in urban centers and among educated classes. Archaeological evidence suggests that Greek was widely spoken alongside Aramaic, with the Septuagint being used by many Jews who engaged with the wider Hellenistic world.
New Testament Citations: Perhaps most tellingly, when New Testament authors quote the Old Testament, they frequently draw from the Septuagint rather than translating directly from Hebrew texts. Of the approximately 300 Old Testament quotations in the New Testament, about two-thirds align more closely with the Septuagint than with the Hebrew Masoretic text.
Bridge Between Cultures: The Septuagint functioned as a crucial bridge between Jewish and Greek thought worlds, establishing a theological vocabulary in Greek that would later prove essential for early Christian expression.
The Septuagint’s prevalence meant that its terminology and theological nuances significantly shaped the conceptual framework within which Jesus taught and the early church developed its self-understanding.
The Greek term “ekklēsia” appears approximately 100 times in the Septuagint, primarily as a translation of the Hebrew word “קָהָל” (qahal). This Hebrew term denotes an assembly or congregation, particularly referring to Israel gathered for covenant purposes. The semantic range of qahal includes:
In choosing ekklēsia to translate qahal, the Septuagint translators made a significant interpretive decision. They could have consistently used “synagōgē” (συναγωγή), another Greek term that appears in the Septuagint and later came to designate Jewish houses of worship. However, they frequently opted for ekklēsia when the context emphasized Israel’s special covenant status or formal religious gatherings.
Several prominent Septuagint passages employ ekklēsia in ways that would later inform New Testament understanding:
Deuteronomy 9:10 describes the revelation at Sinai as occurring on “the day of the assembly” (ἡμέρᾳ ἐκκλησίας/yom haqahal), establishing ekklēsia’s connection to covenant formation.
Deuteronomy 23:1-8 outlines who may “enter the assembly of the LORD” (εἰς ἐκκλησίαν κυρίου), emphasizing the concept of a bounded, holy community.
1 Kings 8 uses ekklēsia multiple times to describe the gathering of Israel for the dedication of Solomon’s Temple, linking the term to worship and divine presence.
Psalm 22:22 (21:23 LXX): “In the midst of the congregation [ekklēsia] I will praise you,” a verse later quoted in Hebrews 2:12 and applied to Christ and the church.
Joel 2:16: “Consecrate the assembly [ekklēsia],” connecting the term with purification and preparation to meet God.
These usages established ekklēsia as a theologically rich term designating not merely any gathering but specifically God’s covenant people assembled for sacred purposes.
While the Septuagint provided the primary religious background for ekklēsia, the term also carried well-established secular meanings in the wider Greco-Roman world:
Political Assemblies: In ancient Greek city-states, particularly Athens, the ekklēsia was the principal assembly of citizens with voting rights who gathered to make political decisions. This democratic institution represented the sovereignty of the citizens who were “called out” (ek-kaleō) from their homes to participate in governance.
Legal Gatherings: In some contexts, ekklēsia referred to formally convened legal assemblies where public matters were adjudicated.
Public Meetings: The term could designate various civic gatherings for public announcements or celebrations.
This is evident in Acts 19:32-41, where the word ekklēsia describes the chaotic gathering in Ephesus, with the town clerk warning that they might be charged with riot if the “assembly” (ekklēsia) is not lawfully conducted.
When early Christians adopted this term, they were making a profoundly counter-cultural statement. By describing their community as the ekklēsia:
Political Implications: They were implicitly claiming an alternative “citizenship” and allegiance to a different sovereign—Christ rather than Caesar. This helps explain why Roman authorities often viewed the early church with suspicion.
Social Boundaries: While the political ekklēsia in Greek cities was limited to free male citizens, the Christian ekklēsia explicitly included women, slaves, and people of all ethnic backgrounds (Galatians 3:28), representing a radical social reimagination.
Divine Authority: Rather than being called out by human civic leaders, the Christian ekklēsia understood itself as called out by God himself through Christ.
This dual background—the Septuagint’s religious usage and the term’s secular political connotations—created a rich conceptual field that allowed early Christians to express their unique identity as both the continuation of Israel’s covenant community and a revolutionary new social reality.
The term ekklēsia appears approximately 114 times in the New Testament, with the majority of occurrences found in Paul’s letters and Acts. Notably, the Gospels contain only three instances, all in Matthew (16:18 and 18:17 twice). This distribution suggests that the term gained prominence as the early Christian movement developed its distinctive identity after Jesus’s resurrection and ascension.
New Testament writers employ ekklēsia with three interconnected meanings:
The Universal Church: The entire body of believers in Christ across time and space (Matthew 16:18; Ephesians 1:22-23; 5:25-27; Colossians 1:18). This usage emphasizes the church’s spiritual unity under Christ’s headship.
Local Congregations: Specific communities of believers in particular geographical locations (Romans 16:5; 1 Corinthians 1:2; 1 Thessalonians 1:1; Revelation 2-3). Most New Testament occurrences fall into this category.
Actual Gatherings: The physical assembly of believers when they come together (1 Corinthians 11:18; 14:19, 28, 34). This usage emphasizes the church as an event or activity rather than merely an institution.
These usages reflect a fluid understanding of ekklēsia that encompasses both the visible, local expression of Christian community and its universal, spiritual dimension.
Perhaps the most theologically significant use of ekklēsia appears in Matthew 16:18, where Jesus declares: “And I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church [ekklēsia], and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it.”
This statement is remarkable for several reasons:
Jesus’s Appropriation: Jesus claims personal ownership of the ekklēsia (“my church”), indicating that the community formed around him constitutes the true assembly of God’s people.
Future Orientation: The declaration is forward-looking (“I will build”), suggesting that while the ekklēsia stands in continuity with Israel, it represents something new that will emerge following Jesus’s death and resurrection.
Divine Initiative: The ekklēsia is not presented as a human organization but as Christ’s own building project, emphasizing divine rather than human agency in its formation.
Permanence and Power: The promise that “the gates of hell shall not prevail against it” establishes the ekklēsia’s durability and spiritual effectiveness in cosmic conflict.
Paul’s letters develop the concept of ekklēsia in profound theological directions:
Body of Christ: In 1 Corinthians 12:27 and Ephesians 1:22-23, Paul identifies the ekklēsia as Christ’s body, with believers as individual members and Christ as the head. This organic metaphor emphasizes both unity and diversity within the community.
Temple of the Spirit: In 1 Corinthians 3:16-17 and Ephesians 2:19-22, the ekklēsia is described as God’s temple where the Spirit dwells, connecting it conceptually with the Old Testament tabernacle and temple as locations of divine presence.
Bride of Christ: Ephesians 5:25-32 presents the ekklēsia as Christ’s bride, drawing on Old Testament imagery of Israel as God’s spouse and emphasizing the intimate relationship between Christ and his people.
Pillar and Buttress of Truth: In 1 Timothy 3:15, the ekklēsia is characterized as “the pillar and buttress of the truth,” highlighting its role in preserving and proclaiming God’s revelation.
These metaphors collectively portray the ekklēsia not simply as a religious organization but as a living spiritual reality intimately connected to the Triune God.
The choice of ekklēsia to describe the Christian community carries significant implications regarding continuity with Israel:
Covenant Connection: By adopting a term that the Septuagint used for Israel’s covenant assembly, early Christians positioned themselves as heirs to Israel’s covenant promises and identity.
Fulfillment Theology: The church did not see itself as replacing Israel but as representing the fulfillment of Israel’s prophetic hope—the eschatological assembly of God’s people centered around the Messiah.
Scriptural Heritage: The use of ekklēsia claimed the Hebrew Scriptures (as mediated through the Septuagint) as the church’s own sacred text, providing the narrative framework within which Christians understood their identity.
This continuity helps explain why early Christians did not abandon the Old Testament but reinterpreted it christologically—they saw themselves as standing in the same covenant story.
Despite this continuity, the adoption of ekklēsia rather than synagōgē also marked an important distinction:
Institutional Differentiation: As Jewish and Christian communities increasingly diverged, ekklēsia helped distinguish Christian gatherings from Jewish synagogue worship.
Theological Emphasis: While synagōgē primarily denoted the gathering itself or the building where Jews met, ekklēsia emphasized the nature of the community as “called out” by God.
Messianic Fulfillment: The choice of ekklēsia underscored the Christian belief that their community represented the eschatological gathering of God’s people around the Messiah, fulfilling Israel’s prophetic hopes.
This distinction grew more pronounced as the first century progressed and Jewish-Christian relations became increasingly strained.
The etymological meaning of ekklēsia as “called out” took on profound theological significance:
Divine Election: Christians understood themselves as called out by God’s sovereign choice (Romans 8:28-30; Ephesians 1:4-5).
Moral Separation: The term implied ethical distinctiveness—being called out from the surrounding pagan culture’s values and practices (2 Corinthians 6:17; 1 Peter 2:9).
Missional Purpose: Being “called out” did not mean isolation but rather being called for a purpose—to witness to God’s kingdom (1 Peter 2:9-10; Acts 1:8).
Eschatological Anticipation: The ekklēsia exists as a foretaste of the final gathering of God’s people at Christ’s return, embodying the “already but not yet” tension of Christian eschatology.
This multi-layered understanding of being “called out” shaped early Christian identity and ethics, fostering both community cohesion and missionary engagement with the wider world.
Perhaps most significantly, ekklēsia emphasized community rather than institutional structures:
People, Not Places: Unlike terms that might denote buildings or religious sites, ekklēsia focused attention on people gathered in relationship.
Dynamic Assembly: The term conveyed activity and life—people actively assembling—rather than static organizational structures.
Participatory Nature: Drawing on both its Jewish and Greek backgrounds, ekklēsia implied active participation of the community members rather than passive attendance.
Spiritual Reality: The term pointed beyond visible gatherings to a spiritual reality—believers united to Christ and one another through the Spirit.
This communal emphasis challenges institutional understandings of church that would emerge in later centuries, reminding believers that the ekklēsia exists wherever followers of Jesus gather in his name.
Modern churches often struggle with institutionalism, individualism, and cultural accommodation—challenges that a recovery of ekklēsia’s original meaning might address:
From Building to People: Reclaiming the understanding that church primarily refers to people rather than places could shift emphasis from maintaining properties to nurturing relationships.
From Institution to Community: Rediscovering the communal emphasis of ekklēsia might counter the individualism prevalent in contemporary spirituality.
From Cultural Conformity to Countercultural Witness: Embracing the “called out” nature of ekklēsia could strengthen the church’s prophetic voice in society.
From Passive Attendance to Active Participation: Recognizing the participatory nature of the original ekklēsia might encourage more engaged involvement of all believers in the community’s life and mission.
The concept of ekklēsia also offers resources for addressing denominational divisions:
Unity Beyond Institutions: By emphasizing the spiritual reality of the universal ekklēsia, Christians can recognize their fundamental unity despite organizational differences.
Shared Heritage: The common etymology and biblical foundation of ekklēsia provides a shared vocabulary for ecumenical dialogue.
Kingdom Focus: Recovering an understanding of the ekklēsia as primarily God’s project rather than a human institution can help shift focus from denominational distinctives to kingdom collaboration.
The journey from the Septuagint’s use of ekklēsia to its adoption in the New Testament represents more than mere linguistic continuity—it embodies a theological bridge connecting God’s covenant with Israel to the new community formed around Jesus Christ. This seemingly simple term carried revolutionary implications, establishing the church’s identity as both ancient and new, continuous with Israel yet distinctively centered on Christ.
For contemporary believers, recovering the rich theological heritage of ekklēsia offers a corrective to reductionist views of church as merely a building, an institution, or a weekend activity. Instead, it invites Christians to embrace their identity as God’s “called-out” people—a community that spans time and space, united by the Spirit, formed by the Word, and called to witness to God’s kingdom.
In an age of institutional decline and spiritual individualism, the original meaning of ekklēsia reminds believers that the church is not primarily something they attend but something they are—the living assembly of God’s people, called out from darkness into light, gathering around Christ as Lord, and sent into the world as witnesses of his kingdom. This recovery of ekklēsia’s theological depth offers not just historical insight but transformative potential for the church’s ongoing mission in the twenty-first century.
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